Skip to main content
Main navigation
Overview
Air quality
Antarctica
Biodiversity
Climate
Coasts
Extreme events
Heritage
Indigenous
Inland water
Land
Marine
Urban
About SoE
Overview
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
The pathway forward
Environment
Climate
Landscapes and seascapes
Land
Inland water
Coasts
Marine
Air
Urban
Antarctica
Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems and native vegetation
Freshwater ecosystems
Marine and coastal ecosystems
Biodiversity
Species decline
Threatened species
Threatened ecological communities
Fauna
Plants
Fungi and microorganisms
Migratory species
Human society and wellbeing
Food, water and air quality
Impacts of changing climate and extreme events
Livability
Indigenous wellbeing
Indigenous, historic, natural and geoheritage
Pressures
Climate change and extreme events
Greenhouse gas emissions
Climate shifts
Other climate-related changes
Extreme events
People
Urbanisation
Land clearing
Pollution
Recreation and tourism
Industry
Transportation
Resource extraction
Industrial pollution
Energy production
Invasive species and range shifts
Biosecurity and sources of invasive species
Impacts of invasive species
Range shifts and extensions
Indigenous governance, rights and access
Access and rights to Indigenous estate
Indigenous access and rights to natural resources
Indigenous cultural and intellectual property
Cumulative pressures
Management
Environment management framework
Legislation, policy and international obligations
International obligations and treaties
National, state and territory legislation and policy
Management approaches
Integrated management
Indigenous management
Stewardship
Natural capital accounting and environmental–economic accounting
Management of specific sectors and resources
Protected areas
Biodiversity and natural resources
Water resources
Coastal and marine
Heritage
Urban
Antarctica
Management of pressures
Environmental impacts
Climate change mitigation and adaptation
Extreme events management
Invasive species management
Pollution management
Air pollution
Cumulative impact management
Resources
Funding
Data
Human resources
New research technologies
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Air quality
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Air pollution types and sources
Outdoor air quality
Carbon monoxide
Lead
Mercury
Nitrogen dioxide
Ozone
Persistent organic pollutants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Sulfur dioxide
Particulate matter
Volatile organic compounds
Indoor air quality
Outdoor conditions
Bushfire smoke
Indoor sources of air pollution
Airborne pathogens
Pressures
Climate change
Prescribed burning and bushfires
Biogenic emissions
Dust storms
Population
Motor vehicles
Other engines
Urban development
Solid fuel heaters
Industry
Airborne industrial pollutants
Nonregulated diesel engines
Shipping
Management
National and international agreements and policy
National Environment Protection Measures
National air quality standards
Air Quality Index
Inventories
National Clean Air Agreement work plan
National Air Technical Advisory Group
International agreements
Management of specific pressures
Motor vehicles
Industry
Other pollution sources
Research and new technologies
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Antarctica
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Physical environment
Atmosphere
Cryosphere
Southern Ocean
Living environment
Terrestrial species                                         Â
Marine vertebrate species
Marine invertebrates
Human environment
Antarctic stations
Australian Antarctic stations
Shipping and air operations
Heritage values
Natural heritage sites
Historic heritage sites
Pressures
Climate change
Air temperature
Winds
Precipitation
Ultraviolet radiation
Sea ice
Ocean temperature
Ocean acidification
Population
Pollution
Industry
Commercial fishing
Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
Tourism
Bioprospecting
Non-native species
Terrestrial species
Marine species
Management
National and international frameworks
Australian legislation and guidance
Protected areas
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels
International Whaling Commission
Data and monitoring
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Biodiversity
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Flora and fauna
Indigenous culturally significant species
Threatened species
Plants
Animals
Fungi and other microorganisms
Ecosystems and habitats
Threatened ecological communities
Soil ecosystems and biodiversity
Aquatic ecosystems and habitats
Pressures
Threats and key threatening processes
Key threatening processes
Climate change
Climate impacts on terrestrial biodiversity
Climate impacts on aquatic biodiversity
Changing fire regimes
Extreme events
Population
Urban development
Human activity
Industry
Production systems
Mining and energy production
Clearing and habitat loss
Invasive species, problematic native species, and diseases
Invasive plants
Invasive animals
Animal diseases
Plant pathogens
Interactions between pressures and cumulative impacts
Management
National and international agreements and policy
National
International
Indigenous knowledge and land and sea management
Management approaches
Protected areas
Threatened species and ecological communities
Other management initiatives
Management investment
Natural resource management and biodiversity programs
Indigenous Protected Areas and ranger programs
Research
Information and monitoring
Availability of information and monitoring of threatened species
Availability of information and monitoring of threatened ecological communities
Citizen science
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Climate
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Temperature
Land temperatures
Ocean temperatures
Rainfall and snow
Regional rainfall trends
Snow
Impacts of rainfall changes
Sea level
Sea level rise in Australia
Impacts of sea level rise
Extreme events
Links of individual extreme events to climate change
Temperature extremes
High-rainfall extremes
Drought
Fire weather
Cyclones
Pressures
Climate variability
El Niño–Southern Oscillation and Indian Ocean Dipole
Other climate influences
Greenhouse gases
National greenhouse gas emissions
State and territory emissions
Atmospheric concentrations
Management
National and international frameworks
Indigenous involvement
Management approaches
Greenhouse gas emissions reduction
Indigenous knowledge and management
Climate adaptation
Mitigation of specific impacts
Resources
Research, data and monitoring
Citizen science
New technologies
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Coasts
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Beaches and shorelines
Ocean beaches and sand dunes
Beaches in estuaries and bays
Rocky shoreline
Mudflats and sandbars
Coastal waterways
Estuaries and bays
Water quality
Coastal lakes and lagoons
Coastal ecosystems and habitats
Mangroves
Saltmarshes
Seagrasses
Dune vegetation
Islands
Coastal species
Threatened species
Shorebirds
Crocodiles
Dugongs
Invertebrates in estuaries and bays
Pressures
Climate change
Extreme weather events
Sea level rise
Erosion and inundation
Population
Coastal development and land use
Tourism and recreation
Customary fishing
Marine plastics and debris
Microplastics
Light pollution
Industry
Nutrient pollution
Contaminants in urban estuaries
Mining and energy production
Artificial structures
Aquaculture
Desalination
Dredging
Flow regimes
Biological pressures
Aquatic invasive species
Terrestrial invasive species
Infectious diseases and mass die-offs
Harmful algal blooms
Jellyfish blooms
Management
Coastal governance and policy
Legislative protection
Indigenous rights and policy
Management approaches
Integrated management
Indigenous management
Climate adaptation
Cumulative impacts management
Threatened species management
Restoration and recovery
Resources
New technology
Citizen science
Data integration
Indigenous knowledge and research
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Extreme events
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Cyclones and storms
Tropical cyclones
East coast lows
Hail and convective storms
Floods
Rainfall events and flash floods
Coastal erosion and inundation
Heatwaves
Terrestrial heatwaves
Marine heatwaves
Bushfires and wildfires
Increasing fire risk
Summer bushfires in 2019–20
Other recent bushfires
Indigenous fire management
Pressures
Climate change
Temperature-related extremes
Rainfall and drought
Bushfires
Sea level rise and coastal flooding
Tropical cyclones and storms
Population
Urban expansion
Legacy construction and planning
Management
National and international frameworks
National framework
State and territory regulation
Planning guidelines
Management approaches
Integrated management
Indigenous management
Management of specific impacts
Tropical cyclones
Bushfire
Flood
Built environment
Resources
Funding
Data and monitoring
Citizen science
Impacts on research infrastructure
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Heritage
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Indigenous heritage
Definition and types of Indigenous heritage
Recognition and protection of Indigenous heritage
Natural heritage
Types and condition of natural heritage
Recognition and protection of natural heritage
Pressures on, and management of, natural heritage
Geoheritage
Types and condition of geoheritage
Recognition and protection of geoheritage
Pressures on, and management of, geoheritage
Historic heritage
Types and condition of historic heritage
Recognition and protection of historic heritage
Pressures on, and management of, historic heritage
Heritage recognised under the EPBC Act
World Heritage
National Heritage
Commonwealth Heritage
Pressures
Climate change
Extreme events
Sea level rise and associated marine changes
Long-term gradual-onset effects
Population
Urban development
Services
Invasive species and disease
Governance
Industry
Extractive industries
Farming
Production and manufacturing
Tourism and recreation
Other pressures on Indigenous heritage
Effects of colonisation
Ongoing pressures on Indigenous heritage
Disempowerment
Disconnection from Country
Management
National and international frameworks
National legislative framework
National heritage management framework
International heritage obligations and responsibilities
Leadership and partnerships
Management approaches
Respecting and protecting heritage values
Providing for community needs and expectations
Indigenous management approaches
Managing specific pressures
Climate change
Extractive industries
Tourism and recreation
Urban development
Resources
Funding
Information and data
Human resources
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Indigenous
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impact
Outlook
Impact
Environment
Country and connections
What does Country mean to Indigenous people?
Different aspects and areas of Country and connection
People
Wellbeing and connection with kin and Country
Knowledge, languages and practices
Pressures
Governance
Impacts of colonisation, frontier violence, dispossession and family disruption
Disempowerment and lack of recognition
Information
Indigenous data sovereignty
Data for governance
Tension between Indigenous knowledge and digital data systems
Climate change
Changes to seasons, flora and fauna
Extreme events
People and industry
Development and land-use change
Industrial and commercial pressures
Management
National and international frameworks that support caring for Country
Indigenous land ownership and management
Protected areas
Legal empowerment
International laws and agreements
Caring for Country
What should caring for Country look like?
Benefits of caring for Country
Enablers of caring for Country
Indigenous governance of Country
Indigenous water governance and rights
Indigenous-led monitoring and evaluation
Indigenous knowledge governance
People and skills
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Inland water
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Water sources
Rainfall
Surface water
Groundwater
Other water sources
Natural water systems
Rivers and streams
Fish deaths
Natural lakes
Wetlands
Indigenous water
Water and Indigenous people
Pressures on Indigenous water
Indigenous water consultation and access
Water quality
Water quality guidelines
Salinity
Eutrophication and suspended sediments
Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)
Acid sulfate releases
Pressures
Climate change
Changes in hydrology
Bushfires
Heavy rainfall and flooding
Population
Water stress
Industry
Agriculture
Mining, and oil and gas production
Management
National frameworks
National Water Initiative
Water Act 2007
Murray–Darling Basin Plan
National Groundwater Strategic Framework
Management approaches
Water markets
Water resource planning in Australia
Environmental and cultural flows
Resources
Funding
Data and monitoring
Citizen science
New technologies
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Land
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Land and its natural capital values
Native vegetation
Vegetation extent
Vegetation condition
Soil
Soil classification
Soil health
Carbon
Carbon cycle and budgets
Carbon above the ground in vegetation biomass
Carbon below the ground in soils
Pressures
Land use
Changes at the national level
Changes at the state and territory level
Climate change
Greenhouse gas emissions from land use
Changing temperatures and hydrology
Changing patterns of ecosystems, agriculture and forestry
Population
Urban expansion
Infrastructure
Industry
Agriculture
Forestry
Extractive industries
Land clearing
Landfill and land contamination
Introduced and invasive species
Overall status and trends
Overall impacts
Compounding pressures
Management
Management approaches
Land tenure
Protected areas
Indigenous land management
Retaining and restoring natural capital assets
Management of specific pressures
Invasive species management
Agriculture management
Forestry management
Extractive industries management
Resources
Funding
Data and monitoring
Environmental–economic accounting
Human resources
New technologies
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Marine
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Marine habitats and communities
Water column
Coral reefs
Rocky reefs and kelp beds
Canyons and seamounts
Other seabed habitats
Marine species
Marine mammals
Sharks, rays, and chimaeras
Tuna and billfish
Reef fishes
Other fishes
Sea turtles and sea snakes
Seabirds
Invertebrates
Marine ecosystem processes
Water clarity (turbidity, transparency and colour)
Microbial processes
Primary production (phytoplankton)
Secondary production (zooplankton)
Food webs and connectivity
Species redistribution
Pressures
Climate and climate change
Climate and system variability
Changes to water temperature and salinity
Ocean acidification
Changes to ocean circulation
Changes to ocean nutrients and dissolved oxygen
Extreme weather events
Introduced species, diseases, pests and algal blooms
Population
Recreational fishing
Marine plastics and debris
Other marine pollution
Tourism
Industry
Commercial fishing
Indigenous commercial fishing
Marine vessel activity
Marine petrochemical and mineral industries
Offshore renewable energy generation
Anthropogenic marine noise
Cumulative effects
Management
National and international policy and frameworks
National policy
Marine biodiversity protection
Indigenous inclusivity
International policy
Management approaches
Integrated management
Management and data agreements with Traditional Custodians
Marine ecosystem restoration and engineering
Management of specific pressures
Climate and climate change
Commercial fishing
Indigenous commercial fishing
Recreational fishing
Marine petrochemical and mineral industries
Plastics and marine debris
Other marine pollution
Marine vessel activity
Offshore renewable energy generation
Anthropogenic marine noise
Resources
National Marine Science Plan
Integrated Marine Observing System
Marine National Facility
Reef Integrated Monitoring and Reporting Program
Indigenous knowledge and research
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
Urban
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Population and buildings
Population
Population concentration
Built form and development
Livability
Access to jobs, food, services and digital connectivity
Travel
Safety and security
The natural environment
Air quality
Resource availability and security
Water
Energy
Pressures
Climate change
Urban heat
Bushfires
Rainfall deficiency and drought
Extreme rainfall and flooding
Sea level rise
Population
Population growth forecast
Urban densification and expansion
Travel demand
Resource consumption
Waste and pollution
COVID-19 pandemic
Industry
Management
Management approaches
Urban planning and collaboration
Urban resilience
Management of specific pressures
Travel management
Waste management
Water management
Heat management
Resources
Data and monitoring
Community engagement
New technologies and the future city
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
Downloads and supplementary material
Approach
Chapter resources
Assessments
Graphs, maps and tables
Case studies
References
About SoE
About this Report
Authors
Artworks and artists
Downloads
Glossary
References
Search
Search
Cite this page
Williams KJ, Hunter B, Schmidt RK, Woodward E, Cresswell ID (2021). Land: Carbon. In:
Australia State of the environment 2021
, Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, Canberra,
https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/land/environment/carbon
, DOI: 10.26194/6EAM-6G50
Copy
Download citation