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  • Overview
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • The pathway forward
      • Climate
      • Landscapes and seascapes
        • Land
        • Inland water
        • Coasts
        • Marine
        • Air
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      • Ecosystems
        • Terrestrial ecosystems and native vegetation
        • Freshwater ecosystems
        • Marine and coastal ecosystems
      • Biodiversity
        • Species decline
        • Threatened species
        • Threatened ecological communities
        • Fauna
        • Plants
        • Fungi and microorganisms
        • Migratory species
      • Human society and wellbeing
        • Food, water and air quality
        • Impacts of changing climate and extreme events
        • Livability
        • Indigenous wellbeing
        • Indigenous, historic, natural and geoheritage
      • Climate change and extreme events
        • Greenhouse gas emissions
        • Climate shifts
        • Other climate-related changes
        • Extreme events
      • People
        • Urbanisation
        • Land clearing
        • Pollution
        • Recreation and tourism
      • Industry
        • Transportation
        • Resource extraction
        • Industrial pollution
        • Energy production
      • Invasive species and range shifts
        • Biosecurity and sources of invasive species
        • Impacts of invasive species
        • Range shifts and extensions
      • Indigenous governance, rights and access
        • Access and rights to Indigenous estate
        • Indigenous access and rights to natural resources
        • Indigenous cultural and intellectual property
      • Cumulative pressures
      • Environment management framework
      • Legislation, policy and international obligations
        • International obligations and treaties
        • National, state and territory legislation and policy
      • Management approaches
        • Integrated management
        • Indigenous management
        • Stewardship
        • Natural capital accounting and environmental–economic accounting
      • Management of specific sectors and resources
        • Protected areas
        • Biodiversity and natural resources
        • Water resources
        • Coastal and marine
        • Heritage
        • Urban
        • Antarctica
      • Management of pressures
        • Environmental impacts
        • Climate change mitigation and adaptation
        • Extreme events management
        • Invasive species management
        • Pollution management
        • Air pollution
        • Cumulative impact management
      • Resources
        • Funding
        • Data
        • Human resources
        • New research technologies
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Air quality
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Air pollution types and sources
      • Outdoor air quality
        • Carbon monoxide
        • Lead
        • Mercury
        • Nitrogen dioxide
        • Ozone
        • Persistent organic pollutants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
        • Sulfur dioxide
        • Particulate matter
        • Volatile organic compounds
      • Indoor air quality
        • Outdoor conditions
        • Bushfire smoke
        • Indoor sources of air pollution
        • Airborne pathogens
      • Climate change
        • Prescribed burning and bushfires
        • Biogenic emissions
        • Dust storms
      • Population
        • Motor vehicles
        • Other engines
        • Urban development
        • Solid fuel heaters
      • Industry
        • Airborne industrial pollutants
        • Nonregulated diesel engines
        • Shipping
      • National and international agreements and policy
        • National Environment Protection Measures
        • National air quality standards
        • Air Quality Index
        • Inventories
        • National Clean Air Agreement work plan
        • National Air Technical Advisory Group
        • International agreements
      • Management of specific pressures
        • Motor vehicles
        • Industry
        • Other pollution sources
      • Research and new technologies
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Antarctica
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Physical environment
        • Atmosphere
        • Cryosphere
        • Southern Ocean
      • Living environment
        • Terrestrial species                                          
        • Marine vertebrate species
        • Marine invertebrates
      • Human environment
        • Antarctic stations
        • Australian Antarctic stations
        • Shipping and air operations
      • Heritage values
        • Natural heritage sites
        • Historic heritage sites
      • Climate change
        • Air temperature
        • Winds
        • Precipitation
        • Ultraviolet radiation
        • Sea ice
        • Ocean temperature
        • Ocean acidification
      • Population
        • Pollution
      • Industry
        • Commercial fishing
        • Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
        • Tourism
        • Bioprospecting
      • Non-native species
        • Terrestrial species
        • Marine species
      • National and international frameworks
        • Australian legislation and guidance
        • Protected areas
        • Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
        • Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels
        • International Whaling Commission
      • Data and monitoring
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Biodiversity
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Flora and fauna
        • Indigenous culturally significant species
        • Threatened species
        • Plants
        • Animals
        • Fungi and other microorganisms
      • Ecosystems and habitats
        • Threatened ecological communities
        • Soil ecosystems and biodiversity
        • Aquatic ecosystems and habitats
      • Threats and key threatening processes
        • Key threatening processes
      • Climate change
        • Climate impacts on terrestrial biodiversity
        • Climate impacts on aquatic biodiversity
        • Changing fire regimes
        • Extreme events
      • Population
        • Urban development
        • Human activity
      • Industry
        • Production systems
        • Mining and energy production
        • Clearing and habitat loss
      • Invasive species, problematic native species, and diseases
        • Invasive plants
        • Invasive animals
        • Animal diseases
        • Plant pathogens
      • Interactions between pressures and cumulative impacts
      • National and international agreements and policy
        • National
        • International
      • Indigenous knowledge and land and sea management
      • Management approaches
        • Protected areas
        • Threatened species and ecological communities
        • Other management initiatives
      • Management investment
        • Natural resource management and biodiversity programs
        • Indigenous Protected Areas and ranger programs
        • Research
      • Information and monitoring
        • Availability of information and monitoring of threatened species
        • Availability of information and monitoring of threatened ecological communities
        • Citizen science
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Climate
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Temperature
        • Land temperatures
        • Ocean temperatures
      • Rainfall and snow
        • Regional rainfall trends
        • Snow
        • Impacts of rainfall changes
      • Sea level
        • Sea level rise in Australia
        • Impacts of sea level rise
      • Extreme events
        • Links of individual extreme events to climate change
        • Temperature extremes
        • High-rainfall extremes
        • Drought
        • Fire weather
        • Cyclones
      • Climate variability
        • El Niño–Southern Oscillation and Indian Ocean Dipole
        • Other climate influences
      • Greenhouse gases
        • National greenhouse gas emissions
        • State and territory emissions
        • Atmospheric concentrations
      • National and international frameworks
        • Indigenous involvement
      • Management approaches
        • Greenhouse gas emissions reduction
        • Indigenous knowledge and management
        • Climate adaptation
        • Mitigation of specific impacts
      • Resources
        • Research, data and monitoring
        • Citizen science
        • New technologies
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Coasts
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Beaches and shorelines
        • Ocean beaches and sand dunes
        • Beaches in estuaries and bays
        • Rocky shoreline
        • Mudflats and sandbars
      • Coastal waterways
        • Estuaries and bays
        • Water quality
        • Coastal lakes and lagoons
      • Coastal ecosystems and habitats
        • Mangroves
        • Saltmarshes
        • Seagrasses
        • Dune vegetation
        • Islands
      • Coastal species
        • Threatened species
        • Shorebirds
        • Crocodiles
        • Dugongs
        • Invertebrates in estuaries and bays
      • Climate change
        • Extreme weather events
        • Sea level rise
        • Erosion and inundation
      • Population
        • Coastal development and land use
        • Tourism and recreation
        • Customary fishing
        • Marine plastics and debris
        • Microplastics
        • Light pollution
      • Industry
        • Nutrient pollution
        • Contaminants in urban estuaries
        • Mining and energy production
        • Artificial structures
        • Aquaculture
        • Desalination
        • Dredging
        • Flow regimes
      • Biological pressures
        • Aquatic invasive species
        • Terrestrial invasive species
        • Infectious diseases and mass die-offs
        • Harmful algal blooms
        • Jellyfish blooms
      • Coastal governance and policy
        • Legislative protection
        • Indigenous rights and policy
      • Management approaches
        • Integrated management
        • Indigenous management
        • Climate adaptation
        • Cumulative impacts management
        • Threatened species management
        • Restoration and recovery
      • Resources
        • New technology
        • Citizen science
        • Data integration
        • Indigenous knowledge and research
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Extreme events
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Cyclones and storms
        • Tropical cyclones
        • East coast lows
        • Hail and convective storms
      • Floods
        • Rainfall events and flash floods
        • Coastal erosion and inundation
      • Heatwaves
        • Terrestrial heatwaves
        • Marine heatwaves
      • Bushfires and wildfires
        • Increasing fire risk
        • Summer bushfires in 2019–20
        • Other recent bushfires
        • Indigenous fire management
      • Climate change
        • Temperature-related extremes
        • Rainfall and drought
        • Bushfires
        • Sea level rise and coastal flooding
        • Tropical cyclones and storms
      • Population
        • Urban expansion
        • Legacy construction and planning
      • National and international frameworks
        • National framework
        • State and territory regulation
        • Planning guidelines
      • Management approaches
        • Integrated management
        • Indigenous management
      • Management of specific impacts
        • Tropical cyclones
        • Bushfire
        • Flood
        • Built environment
      • Resources
        • Funding
        • Data and monitoring
        • Citizen science
        • Impacts on research infrastructure
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Heritage
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Indigenous heritage
        • Definition and types of Indigenous heritage
        • Recognition and protection of Indigenous heritage
      • Natural heritage
        • Types and condition of natural heritage
        • Recognition and protection of natural heritage
        • Pressures on, and management of, natural heritage
      • Geoheritage
        • Types and condition of geoheritage
        • Recognition and protection of geoheritage
        • Pressures on, and management of, geoheritage
      • Historic heritage
        • Types and condition of historic heritage
        • Recognition and protection of historic heritage
        • Pressures on, and management of, historic heritage
      • Heritage recognised under the EPBC Act
        • World Heritage
        • National Heritage
        • Commonwealth Heritage
      • Climate change
        • Extreme events
        • Sea level rise and associated marine changes
        • Long-term gradual-onset effects
      • Population
        • Urban development
        • Services
        • Invasive species and disease
        • Governance
      • Industry
        • Extractive industries
        • Farming
        • Production and manufacturing
        • Tourism and recreation
      • Other pressures on Indigenous heritage
        • Effects of colonisation
        • Ongoing pressures on Indigenous heritage
        • Disempowerment
        • Disconnection from Country
      • National and international frameworks
        • National legislative framework
        • National heritage management framework
        • International heritage obligations and responsibilities
        • Leadership and partnerships
      • Management approaches
        • Respecting and protecting heritage values
        • Providing for community needs and expectations
        • Indigenous management approaches
      • Managing specific pressures
        • Climate change
        • Extractive industries
        • Tourism and recreation
        • Urban development
      • Resources
        • Funding
        • Information and data
        • Human resources
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Indigenous
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impact
      • Outlook
      • Impact
      • Country and connections
        • What does Country mean to Indigenous people?
        • Different aspects and areas of Country and connection
      • People
        • Wellbeing and connection with kin and Country
        • Knowledge, languages and practices
      • Governance
        • Impacts of colonisation, frontier violence, dispossession and family disruption
        • Disempowerment and lack of recognition
      • Information
        • Indigenous data sovereignty
        • Data for governance
        • Tension between Indigenous knowledge and digital data systems
      • Climate change
        • Changes to seasons, flora and fauna
        • Extreme events
      • People and industry
        • Development and land-use change
        • Industrial and commercial pressures
      • National and international frameworks that support caring for Country
        • Indigenous land ownership and management
        • Protected areas
        • Legal empowerment
        • International laws and agreements
      • Caring for Country
        • What should caring for Country look like?
        • Benefits of caring for Country
      • Enablers of caring for Country
        • Indigenous governance of Country
        • Indigenous water governance and rights
        • Indigenous-led monitoring and evaluation
        • Indigenous knowledge governance
        • People and skills
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Inland water
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Water sources
        • Rainfall
        • Surface water
        • Groundwater
        • Other water sources
      • Natural water systems
        • Rivers and streams
        • Fish deaths
        • Natural lakes
        • Wetlands
      • Indigenous water
        • Water and Indigenous people
        • Pressures on Indigenous water
        • Indigenous water consultation and access
      • Water quality
        • Water quality guidelines
        • Salinity
        • Eutrophication and suspended sediments
        • Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)
        • Acid sulfate releases
      • Climate change
        • Changes in hydrology
        • Bushfires
        • Heavy rainfall and flooding
      • Population
        • Water stress
      • Industry
        • Agriculture
        • Mining, and oil and gas production
      • National frameworks
        • National Water Initiative
        • Water Act 2007
        • Murray–Darling Basin Plan
        • National Groundwater Strategic Framework
      • Management approaches
        • Water markets
        • Water resource planning in Australia
        • Environmental and cultural flows
      • Resources
        • Funding
        • Data and monitoring
        • Citizen science
        • New technologies
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Land
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Land and its natural capital values
      • Native vegetation
        • Vegetation extent
        • Vegetation condition
      • Soil
        • Soil classification
        • Soil health
      • Carbon
        • Carbon cycle and budgets
        • Carbon above the ground in vegetation biomass
        • Carbon below the ground in soils
      • Land use
        • Changes at the national level
        • Changes at the state and territory level
      • Climate change
        • Greenhouse gas emissions from land use
        • Changing temperatures and hydrology
        • Changing patterns of ecosystems, agriculture and forestry
      • Population
        • Urban expansion
        • Infrastructure
      • Industry
        • Agriculture
        • Forestry
        • Extractive industries
        • Land clearing
        • Landfill and land contamination
      • Introduced and invasive species
        • Overall status and trends
        • Overall impacts
      • Compounding pressures
      • Management approaches
        • Land tenure
        • Protected areas
        • Indigenous land management
        • Retaining and restoring natural capital assets
      • Management of specific pressures
        • Invasive species management
        • Agriculture management
        • Forestry management
        • Extractive industries management
      • Resources
        • Funding
        • Data and monitoring
        • Environmental–economic accounting
        • Human resources
        • New technologies
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Marine
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Marine habitats and communities
        • Water column
        • Coral reefs
        • Rocky reefs and kelp beds
        • Canyons and seamounts
        • Other seabed habitats
      • Marine species
        • Marine mammals
        • Sharks, rays, and chimaeras
        • Tuna and billfish
        • Reef fishes
        • Other fishes
        • Sea turtles and sea snakes
        • Seabirds
        • Invertebrates
      • Marine ecosystem processes
        • Water clarity (turbidity, transparency and colour)
        • Microbial processes
        • Primary production (phytoplankton)
        • Secondary production (zooplankton)
        • Food webs and connectivity
        • Species redistribution
      • Climate and climate change
        • Climate and system variability
        • Changes to water temperature and salinity
        • Ocean acidification
        • Changes to ocean circulation
        • Changes to ocean nutrients and dissolved oxygen
        • Extreme weather events
        • Introduced species, diseases, pests and algal blooms
      • Population
        • Recreational fishing
        • Marine plastics and debris
        • Other marine pollution
        • Tourism
      • Industry
        • Commercial fishing
        • Indigenous commercial fishing
        • Marine vessel activity
        • Marine petrochemical and mineral industries
        • Offshore renewable energy generation
        • Anthropogenic marine noise
      • Cumulative effects
      • National and international policy and frameworks
        • National policy
        • Marine biodiversity protection
        • Indigenous inclusivity
        • International policy
      • Management approaches
        • Integrated management
        • Management and data agreements with Traditional Custodians
        • Marine ecosystem restoration and engineering
      • Management of specific pressures
        • Climate and climate change
        • Commercial fishing
        • Indigenous commercial fishing
        • Recreational fishing
        • Marine petrochemical and mineral industries
        • Plastics and marine debris
        • Other marine pollution
        • Marine vessel activity
        • Offshore renewable energy generation
        • Anthropogenic marine noise
      • Resources
        • National Marine Science Plan
        • Integrated Marine Observing System
        • Marine National Facility
        • Reef Integrated Monitoring and Reporting Program
        • Indigenous knowledge and research
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • Urban
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Population and buildings
        • Population
        • Population concentration
        • Built form and development
      • Livability
        • Access to jobs, food, services and digital connectivity
        • Travel
        • Safety and security
        • The natural environment
        • Air quality
      • Resource availability and security
        • Water
        • Energy
      • Climate change
        • Urban heat
        • Bushfires
        • Rainfall deficiency and drought
        • Extreme rainfall and flooding
        • Sea level rise
      • Population
        • Population growth forecast
        • Urban densification and expansion
        • Travel demand
        • Resource consumption
        • Waste and pollution
        • COVID-19 pandemic
      • Industry
      • Management approaches
        • Urban planning and collaboration
        • Urban resilience
      • Management of specific pressures
        • Travel management
        • Waste management
        • Water management
        • Heat management
      • Resources
        • Data and monitoring
        • Community engagement
        • New technologies and the future city
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
  • About SoE
    • About this Report
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Main navigation

  • Climate
    • Introduction
    • Key findings
    • Outlook and impacts
      • Outlook
      • Impacts
      • Temperature
        • Land temperatures
        • Ocean temperatures
      • Rainfall and snow
        • Regional rainfall trends
        • Snow
        • Impacts of rainfall changes
      • Sea level
        • Sea level rise in Australia
        • Impacts of sea level rise
      • Extreme events
        • Links of individual extreme events to climate change
        • Temperature extremes
        • High-rainfall extremes
        • Drought
        • Fire weather
        • Cyclones
      • Climate variability
        • El Niño–Southern Oscillation and Indian Ocean Dipole
        • Other climate influences
      • Greenhouse gases
        • National greenhouse gas emissions
        • State and territory emissions
        • Atmospheric concentrations
      • National and international frameworks
        • Indigenous involvement
      • Management approaches
        • Greenhouse gas emissions reduction
        • Indigenous knowledge and management
        • Climate adaptation
        • Mitigation of specific impacts
      • Resources
        • Research, data and monitoring
        • Citizen science
        • New technologies
      • Authors and acknowledgements
      • Downloads and supplementary material
      • Approach
    Chapter resources
    • Assessments
    • Graphs, maps and tables
    • Case studies
    • References
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© COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA 2021
We acknowledge the Traditional Owners of Country throughout Australia and recognise their continuing connection to land, waters and culture. We pay our respects to their Elders past, present and emerging.