2021 Limited confidence Indigenous assessment Assessments of beaches and shorelines vary between good and poor, but all are deteriorating due to sea level rise and local factors related to human use of the coast. Ocean beaches are currently stable in position and are in relatively good condition away from urban centres, but beaches in urbanised estuaries and bays are exposed to numerous human pressures. Rocky shorelines, mudflats and sandbars are vulnerable to many threats, but monitoring of those habitats is rare. The Indigenous assessments for the state of beaches and shorelines found that 2 assets are good and 2 are poor, and that the trend is unclear for 2 assets and stable for 2. Local government assessments (see Approach) show that the condition of beaches and shorelines varies around Australia, but with no clear north–south or east–west pattern. Some shorelines are in worse condition near capital cities. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 14.2, 15.1, 15.5 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toBeaches and shorelines Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Ocean beaches and sand dunes 2021 Adequate confidence 2016 Most beaches are in a dynamic but stable position with little change in decadal-scale behaviour. They are exposed to extreme wave events that can damage legacy planning infrastructure, and are vulnerable to sea level rise. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was poor, with an unclear trend. Assessment Beaches in estuaries and bays 2021 Limited confidence Urban beaches in estuaries and bays continue to be subject to increased pressures including engineering interventions, urbanisation and sea level rise. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was poor, with an unclear trend. Assessment Rocky shoreline 2021 Limited confidence 2016 Data are generally sparse, but heatwaves, harvesting, trampling, deteriorating water quality, urban development and sea level rise all threaten this habitat. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was good, with a stable trend. Assessment Mudflats and sandbars 2021 Low confidence 2016 Sea level rise, river regulation and urbanisation are increasing pressures on mudflats and sandflats. However, studies documenting the resultant ecosystem change are lacking. The Indigenous assessment for some local areas was good, with a stable trend.
2021 Limited confidence Indigenous assessment Coastal waterways vary in their exposure to human impacts and therefore their condition, but are generally in poor but stable condition nationally. Water quality is, however, considered good. The condition of estuaries and bays, and water quality have been relatively stable in recent years, but the trend in coastal lakes and lagoons is unclear due to lack of monitoring. The Indigenous assessments for the state of waterways found that 2 assets are poor and 1 is good, and the trend is stable for 1 asset and unclear for 2. Local government assessments (see Approach) indicate that waterways near major capital cities are considered to be in poor condition, while those outside those areas are generally regarded as good. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal target 14.2 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toCoastal waterways Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Estuaries and bays 2021 Adequate confidence 2016 Many estuaries in Australia are negatively impacted by human activities and climate change. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was poor, with a stable trend. Assessment Water quality 2021 Limited confidence Water quality is moderately good in coastal Australia. The trend is stable, but issues such as climate extremes and coastal development remain a concern. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was good, with an unclear trend. Assessment Coastal lakes and lagoons 2021 Low confidence 2016 Human activities are degrading habitats and habitat quality, but data are poor and geographically variable, rendering the current state and trend uncertain. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was poor, with an unclear trend.
2021 Somewhat adequate confidence Indigenous assessment With the exception of seagrasses, most coastal habitat types are considered to be in poor and declining condition. Saltmarshes, mangroves and dune vegetation are all recovering from historical losses and face current threats. Even so, their condition is considered to be deteriorating nationally, although this is regionally variable. Islands are particularly vulnerable to invasive species and climate-related pressures. The Indigenous assessments for the state of coastal ecosystems and habitats for all assets are good; the trend is stable for 3 assets and unclear for 2. Local government assessments (see Approach) indicate that mangroves and saltmarshes are considered to be in poor condition in the south of Australia and in better condition to the north. This likely reflects impacts of urbanisation and coastal development in the south, but does not capture the mangrove dieback that occurred in remote areas in the north. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 14.2, 15.5 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toCoastal ecosystems and habitats Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Mangroves 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 Mangroves are threatened by a range of human activities, including extreme weather events that have resulted in mass dieback in northern Australia. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was good, with a stable trend. Assessment Saltmarshes 2021 Limited confidence 2016 Recent surveys show saltmarsh decline is continuing. The Indigenous assessment for some local areas was good, with a stable trend. Assessment Seagrasses 2021 Limited confidence 2016 Limited monitoring data and anecdotal accounts suggest seagrass in unpopulated areas is largely healthy, but areas with coastal development have ongoing losses. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was good, with a stable trend. Assessment Dune vegetation 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence While land clearing is less prominent than in previous years, it is still an issue with continued and profound cumulative impacts. Previously stable areas, away from urban development, have seen marked increases in environment-related degradation (climate change and large-scale bushfires), with little marked improvement at the macroscale in dune vegetation condition attributable to restoration. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was good, with an unclear trend. Assessment Islands 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence The current condition of islands varies, but trends are unclear without a national perspective. Pressures include invasive species, climate-induced changes, and over-exploitation from people and industry. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was good, with an unclear trend.
2021 Adequate confidence Indigenous assessment Threatened species, particularly shorebirds, are in poor and declining condition. This is mostly due to degradation of their habitats near the coast, both within Australia and (for migratory species) overseas. Fishes and invertebrates in bays and estuaries are also considered to be in poor condition. In contrast, crocodile populations are healthy and growing, and dugongs are in good and stable condition. The Indigenous assessments for the state of coastal species found 1 asset is poor, 3 are good and 1 is very good, and the trend is deteriorating for 1 asset, unclear for 2 and stable for 2. Local government assessments (see Approach) showed threatened species and shorebirds to be in poor condition in most parts of Australia, but particularly near capital cities. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 14.2, 14.4, 14.5, 15.5 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toCoastal species Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Threatened species 2021 Adequate confidence More than half of all threatened species are found in the coastal zone and are concentrated near urban centres, where threats are greatest. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was poor, with a deteriorating trend. Assessment Shorebirds 2021 Adequate confidence 2016 Shorebirds are in severe, ongoing decline due to critical habitat loss in Australia and Asia, compounded by the impact of other threats. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was good, with a stable trend. Assessment Crocodiles 2021 Adequate confidence 2016 Crocodiles are thriving in the Northern Territory and parts of Queensland. The Indigenous assessment for some local areas was very good, with a stable trend. Assessment Dugongs 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 Dugongs are in good condition in northern Australia, though threatened by habitat loss in south-eastern Queensland. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was good, with an unclear trend. Assessment Fishes in estuaries and bays 2021 Limited confidence 2016 Diversity and abundance of fish assemblages in estuaries and bays are altered by declining water and habitat quality associated with increasing human activities and climate change impacts. The Indigenous assessment for some local areas was good, with a stable trend. Assessment Invertebrates in estuaries and bays 2021 Limited confidence 2016 Biodiversity is probably declining, depending on coastal development, invasive species and climate change, but confidence is low due to lack of monitoring. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was good, with an unclear trend.
2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 Indigenous assessment Most climate pressures are considered high impact, and, for pressures where trends through time are discernible, are deteriorating. Sea level rise currently has low impact, but is projected to have very high impact in the future. The Indigenous assessments for the state of climate change pressures found 1 pressure has a high impact and 2 have a very high impact, and the trend is deteriorating for 2 pressures and stable for 1. Local government assessments (see Approach) showed that extreme weather events are a concern Australia-wide, while concern over other climate-related impacts varies between local government areas. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 13.2, 14.3, 17.2 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toClimate change Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Extreme weather events 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence Extreme weather events apply significant pressure to the Australian region. Changes in trends on 5-year timescales (between assessment reports) may be due to low-frequency climate mode variability that can act to misrepresent the signatures of long-term climate change. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was low, with a stable trend. Assessment Sea level rise 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 There has already been a significant increase in the frequency of extreme high sea levels and this will increase as sea levels rise. The Indigenous assessment for some local areas was low, with a deteriorating trend. Assessment Erosion and inundation 2021 Adequate confidence 2016 Inundation associated with extreme sea levels is slowly increasing in line with sea level rise. Beach erosion can now be monitored nationwide with satellite imagery. Most beaches are dynamic but stable, apart from legacy erosion ‘hotspots’. The Indigenous assessment for some local areas was high, with a deteriorating trend.
2021 Somewhat adequate confidence Indigenous assessment Most population-driven pressures are considered to be high or very high impact, and increasing. This reflects the growth of Australia’s coastal population and failure to decouple population density from per-person environmental footprint. The Indigenous assessments for the state of population pressures found 1 pressure has a high impact and 1 has a very high impact, and the trends for 2 pressures are unclear. Local government area (LGA) assessments (see Approach) showed that population density, coastal development and land use concern almost all LGAs Australia-wide. Other population pressures are felt most in the south, near major cities. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 8.9, 11.6, 14.1, 14.4 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toPopulation Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Coastal development and land use 2021 Adequate confidence Coastal development is increasing. There is an immediate need for coastal planning to better manage the impacts of urban growth. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was low, with a stable trend. Assessment Tourism and recreation 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 Pressures are expected to shift more in line with domestic travel patterns, while ecosystem resilience is evident when pressures are absent. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was low, with a stable trend. Assessment Customary fishing 2021 Limited confidence There is a general lack of understanding about customary fishing. A range of management arrangements have been developed to support customary fishing, but the various laws are not always supportive for all communities. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was low, with a stable trend. Assessment Marine plastics and debris 2021 Limited confidence 2016 Marine debris is widespread around Australia and there is increasing evidence of its impacts on coastal species and habitats. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was low, with a stable trend. Assessment Microplastics 2021 Low confidence There is growing concern but large uncertainty about ecological impacts of microplastics. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was low, with a stable trend. Assessment Light pollution 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence Coastal artificial light pollution is increasing annually, but its impacts are poorly understood. Research into community-level and long-term effects is required. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was low, with a stable trend.
2021 Somewhat adequate confidence Indigenous assessment Most industry pressures are considered low impact and stable, largely due to their localised impacts. Nutrient pollution, artificial structures and contamination in urban estuaries are all considered high impact, though nutrient pollution is improving. The pressure from artificial structures is considered to be increasing due to the expansion of foreshore developments. The Indigenous assessments for the state of industry pressures found 1 pressure has a very low impact, 2 have a low impact and 2 have high impacts; the trends for all pressures are stable. Local government assessments (see Approach) show that the presence and intensity of industry pressures vary around Australia, but tend to be greatest near major cities. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 12.4, 14.1, 14.4, 14.6 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toIndustry Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Nutrient pollution 2021 Adequate confidence 2016 Nutrient pollution continues to cause significant harm in Australia. The trend is improving, but emerging issues such as organic loads remain a concern. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was high, with a stable trend. Assessment Contaminants in urban estuaries 2021 Limited confidence 2016 The state of urban estuaries is generally very poor due to legacy and contemporary contamination. The expansion of coastal cities and port developments is likely to continue the degradation of Australia’s coastal and estuarine ecosystems. Assessment Mining and energy production 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 Locally significant pressures are focused around export facilities and ports rather than extraction operations, and pressures levelled off as the mining boom finished. The Indigenous assessment for some regional areas was low, with a stable trend. Assessment Artificial structures 2021 Adequate confidence 2016 Pressure is increasing with sea level rise, coastal development and demand for supporting infrastructure such as ports and marinas, particularly around urban estuaries. Assessment Aquaculture 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 Pressure is increasing as industry grows, but most impacts are small in spatial scale. The Indigenous assessment for some local areas was very low, with a stable trend. Assessment Desalination 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 At current operating levels, desalination is a relatively low-intensity and localised pressure. Assessment Dredging 2021 Limited confidence Dredging is a consistent pressure, particularly in the north of Australia, but impacts are relatively localised and generally low outside the dredging footprint. The Indigenous assessment for some local areas was very low, with a stable trend. Assessment Flow regimes 2021 Adequate confidence 2016 Reduced and altered flow regimes are driven by regulation and climate change. Environmental water flows are reducing the negative impacts of regulation.
2021 Somewhat adequate confidence Indigenous assessment Invasive species are an ongoing challenge in coastal environments, and are considered very high impact in terrestrial environments and high impact in aquatic environments. Invasive species can have devastating ecological and economic consequences, particularly in areas with sensitive ecosystems, such as islands. Both terrestrial and aquatic invasions are getting words, and the management of both remains a difficult problem. Diseases and blooms are considered relatively low-impact and stable pressures. The Indigenous assessments for the state of biological pressures found 1 pressure has a low impact, and the trend is stable. While terrestrial invasive species are problematic for many local government areas Australia-wide (see Approach), other biological pressures are felt in fewer areas. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal target 15.8 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toBiological pressures Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Aquatic invasive species 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 Aquatic invasive species are a pervasive and significant threat that is difficult to manage. Management is improving with new technologies and legislation, but national surveillance is lacking. Assessment Terrestrial invasive species 2021 Adequate confidence Invasive species are a pervasive threat in coastal Australia. Many invasions are accelerating, but management approaches are also evolving rapidly. The Indigenous assessment for some local areas was low, with a stable trend. Assessment Infectious diseases and mass die-offs 2021 Limited confidence 2016 Major disease outbreaks, such as white spot disease (Queensland) and Pacific oyster mortality syndrome (New South Wales, Tasmania and South Australia), have occurred. Assessment Harmful algal blooms 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 Different harmful algal blooms occur in different regions and show different trends; there has been no strong overall trend in frequency of blooms. Assessment Jellyfish blooms 2021 Low confidence 2016 Very few long-term datasets are available to monitor trends in jellyfish blooms, and no new datasets have emerged since 2016.
2021 Adequate confidence Coastal governance and policy are only partially effective, but are either stable or improving. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 12.2, 14.2, 14.5 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toCoastal governance and policy Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Legislative protection 2021 Adequate confidence Coastal waters are 9.6% fully protected; although total protected area has increased, gains have only been partially protected. Assessment Indigenous rights and policy 2021 Adequate confidence Current policy restricts the power of Indigenous people to manage their sea Country and Country in coastal spaces.
2021 Somewhat adequate confidence Management approaches are either ineffective or partially effective, but, with the exception of threatened species management, most are improving. Related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal target 15.3 Legend How was this assessment made For more information, go toManagement approaches Share on Twitter Share on Facebook Share on Linkedin Share this link Assessment Integrated management 2021 Adequate confidence National coastal management legislation or policy is absent. Assessment Indigenous management 2021 Adequate confidence Resourcing for adequate co-management approaches is absent. Indigenous practitioners need empowerment to implement the necessary changes. Assessment Indigenous co-management with Traditional Custodians 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence Generally, where Indigenous communities and organisations are enabled to enact management, there is success with limited resources. Assessment Climate adaptation 2021 Low confidence Coastal adaptation to climate change impacts, occurs primarily at the local level following general guidelines provided by states. Assessment Cumulative impacts management 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence 2016 New policies and guidelines have been developed, and decision-makers understand the need for cumulative effects assessment and management. Assessment Threatened species management 2021 Adequate confidence Threatened species management is uncoordinated and mostly relies on habitat protection, but protection is inadequate. Assessment Restoration and recovery 2021 Somewhat adequate confidence Coastal restoration is an emerging management action. However, for most habitats, restoration is still done at scales too small to address degradation.