Assessments

Inshore non-reef habitats at 0–30 m are in good condition, except for the south-east and east, based on expert knowledge. The south-east and east are likely in locally poor condition as a result of historical trawling and nutrient inputs (Barrett et al. 2021b). The Indigenous assessment locally was poor, with an unclear trend.

Good condition generally, with poorer condition in areas subject to frequent (current or historical) bottom fishing (Barrett et al. 2021c).

Spatially restricted habitat is impacted by concentrated commercial bottom fishing in some areas; biota is slow to recover. Available information is generally poor. State is poorest in the South-east and Temperate East marine regions (Althaus et al. 2021a).

State is highly variable for 700–1,500 m, dependent on historical fishing impacts; fishing footprint has decreased since 2016. Habitats beyond 1,500 m are overall in a very good, stable condition in all regions, due to minimal human interactions at these depths to date (O’Hara et al. 2021).

No consistent trend among locations based on an assessment of phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish larvae (Richardson et al. 2021a). The Indigenous assessment locally was poor, with a deteriorating trend.

No consistent trend among locations based on an assessment of phytoplankton and zooplankton (Richardson et al. 2021c).

State and trends of biological components of the deep parts of the water column are largely unknown, but available evidence suggests a good status with likely improvements in some areas, but potential declines elsewhere (Trebilco 2021b).

Bottom-fishing impacts determine the condition of individual submarine canyons; variation is from highly impacted to largely pristine and functionally intact. State is poorest in the south-east region (Nichol et al. 2021). The Indigenous assessment locally was good, with an unclear trend.

Habitats range from very good to very poor, with trends stable to improving. Recovery from historical fishing pressure is expected to be extremely slow and potentially impeded by ocean acidification (Althaus & Williams 2021). The Indigenous assessment locally was good, with an unclear trend.

Warmer seas and associated coral bleaching may be starting to erode what has been a very good state, but not at all reefs (Stuart-Smith & Edgar 2021b).

Trend data are lacking for large parts of the coast. Warm-water events and overgrazing by sea urchins negatively affect some temperate reef habitat, particularly in the east and south-east (Stuart-Smith et al. 2021b). The Indigenous assessment regionally was poor, with an unclear trend.

Algal beds are in good condition nationally, but poorer and continuing to decline in the east and south-east as a result of warming and cascading effects of fishing. Stable elsewhere but vulnerable to heatwaves (Barrett et al. 2021e).

Overall, Australian coral reefs are in a poor state and declining. However, their condition varies considerably within and among regions (Richards et al. 2021) The Indigenous assessment regionally was poor, with a deteriorating trend.

Good condition nationally, but with south-east and east under some ongoing trawl pressure on low vertical relief systems. Ocean warming is an increasing threat (Barrett et al. 2021a).

Slow-growing fauna are exposed to direct fishing impacts, resulting in highly variable condition across depths and between regions. The south-east and east regions have the highest historical impacts from bottom fishing, especially trawling (Althaus et al. 2021b).

Nationally, the overall grade for bryozoan reefs is good condition, with stable to slightly improving trend, and poor for the south-east and east (Barrett et al. 2021d).

Knowledge of state and trends is improving, but is variable between species, species groups and marine regions. The South-east and Temperate East marine regions are, on average, worse than the national state (Kyne & Simpfendorfer 2021). The Indigenous assessment locally was good, with a stable trend.

Status is calculated at regional fisheries management scales, rather than national scales. Methods used to assess status vary between species and regions (Evans et al. 2021a). The Indigenous assessment regionally was good, with an unclear trend.

Assessed grade improved from poor in 2016 to good in 2021, based on an increase in the percentage of fish stock classified as sustainable (Koopman 2021).

Deepwater demersal and benthopelagic fish species in Australian waters are considered to be in good and stable condition, but the long-term consequences of ocean warming are uncertain (Tuck et al. 2021).

Assessments are restricted to the Temperate East, South-east and South-west marine regions. Fishing pressure has lessened, and biomass information is improving (Molony et al. 2021).

Increases in proxies of abundance in the South-east Marine Region suggest that mesopelagic fishes may be increasing (Kloser & Kunnath 2021).

Variable trends at local scales, but some declines in abundance evident at larger scales. Changes in the local fish composition are almost ubiquitous (Stuart-Smith & Edgar 2021b).

State and trends are likely to be regionally variable, with timeseries lacking for most of Australia. Some localised improvements are likely, but some areas have worsened as a result of extreme climate events and climate change–induced range expansions (Tanner & Pitcher 2021b).

The Indigenous assessment regionally was poor, with a deteriorating trend.

There are limited temporal data and historical baselines to determine state and trends. Trawling effort pressures are decreasing in the long term, but pressures associated with climate change are increasing (Tanner & Pitcher 2021a).

Seabird population trends are highly variable, with numerous threats identified and increasing pressures on Australian seabird populations (Woehler 2021). The Indigenous assessment locally was good, with a stable trend.

The status of foraging marine turtle populations is mixed. Little quantitative data are available on habitats and impacts from threats at sea. Protection of turtle foraging habitat is lacking, particularly in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Arthur 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was good, with a stable trend.

State and trends are variable between species and marine regions. Current state is likely good for some species, but available evidence indicates that many populations are declining. Populations in the north-west and east are in worse condition than the national average (Udyawer 2021). The Indigenous assessment locally was good, with an unclear trend.

Population state and trends for most species are unknown but assumed stable; Australian humpback and snubfin dolphins are demonstrating decreasing trends (Evans 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was good, with an unclear trend.

Population state and trends for most species are unknown but assumed stable; humpback and southern right whales (Australian western population only) are demonstrating clear increasing trends (Evans & Harcourt 2021).

Populations of long-nosed fur seals are in good and improving condition, but populations of Australian sea lions and Australian fur seals are in very poor and poor condition, respectively, and both are deteriorating (McIntosh 2021).

Water transparency is relatively good and stable across most of Australia’s marine estate. However, water transparency is decreasing in southern regions as a result of increasing chlorophyll-a. Climate change is expected to cause continuing increases in chlorophyll-a in southern Australia and decreases in northern Australia (Doblin et al. 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was poor, with a stable trend.

Both physical and biological connectivity have changed around Australia as a result of human activities (Condie et al. 2021a). The Indigenous assessment regionally was poor, with a stable trend.

Highly variable. Locations under heavy climate or cumulative pressure are poor; other locations are stable and in good condition (Fulton et al. 2021a). The national Indigenous assessment was very poor, with a deteriorating trend.

Australian waters support generally healthy microbial assemblages. Regional oceanographic changes lead to organismal shifts, with consequences for entire ecosystems (Brown & Bodrossy 2021). The Indigenous assessment locally was poor, with a deteriorating trend.

Primary production has decreased in the north-west and north-east shelf, and offshore in the Indian Ocean, whereas increases have been evident in all waters south of about 25°S (van Ruth & Matear 2021). The Indigenous assessment locally was poor, with a deteriorating trend.

Zooplankton abundance has increased in most regions, whereas trends are unclear for copepod diversity (Richardson et al. 2021b).

Major disease outbreaks, such as white spot disease (Queensland) and Pacific oyster mortality syndrome (New South Wales, Tasmania and South Australia), have occurred. Overall national conditions are unclear (Nowak & Hood 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was good, with a stable trend.

Different harmful algal blooms occur in different regions and show different trends; there has been no strong overall trend in frequency of blooms (Hallegraeff et al. 2021). The national Indigenous assessment was poor, with an unclear trend.

An increasing number of species are shifting their distributions poleward; however, most observations are in temperate regions (Gervais & Pecl 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was poor, with a deteriorating trend.

Because of anthropogenic climate change, overall higher extremes of impacts associated with climate variability are expected to increase (Evans & Hobday 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was high impact, with an unclear trend.

Climate change influences on sea surface temperature and salinity affect the Australian marine environment; high-impact, enduring changes to marine ecosystems have been documented in the past 5 years (Benthuysen 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was high impact, with a deteriorating trend.

Ocean acidification conditions have deteriorated and will continue to deteriorate; these are linked to CO2 emissions scenarios. Coral reefs and shellfish production are considered particularly susceptible to the changing conditions (Tilbrook & Lenton 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was high impact, with a stable trend.

Boundary current dynamics are strongly linked to large-scale major climate modes (El Niño–Southern Oscillation, Indian Ocean Dipole and Southern Annular Mode) and regional forcing, whose variability is predicted to increase with climate change (Sloyan et al. 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was very low impact, with a stable trend.

Climate change is expected to result in declines in nutrient supply to surface waters and potentially reduced oxygen availability in subsurface waters due to increased stratification of the upper ocean. However, observations are currently inadequate to quantify trends (Matear et al. 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was high impact, with an unclear trend.

Extreme weather events apply significant pressure to the Australian region, but their trends on 5-year timescales are unclear (Holbrook & Hobday 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was low impact, with a stable trend.

Pressure from recreational fishing is substantial for specific species. Trends are variable across marine regions (Lynch et al. 2021b). The Indigenous assessment regionally was high impact, with a deteriorating trend.

Sediments and contaminant inputs continue to cause substantial impacts in marine ecosystems, most notably as key contributors to the continual deterioration of the integrity of reef ecosystems (Gagnon 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was low impact, with an unclear trend.

Dumping of dredged material is considered to be low impact relative to other pollution pressures, but potential cumulative and synergistic effects are a critical research gap (Trebilco 2021a).

Increasing litter losses into the marine environment are expected to continue, with a corresponding increase in impacts on marine fauna (Hardesty et al. 2021a).

Many pressures have been reduced through management, but some still exist for a number of target and bycatch species (Pitcher et al. 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was high impact, with a deteriorating trend.

Commercial fishers are not required to indicate their Indigenous status; therefore, drawing out state and trend information for Indigenous commercial fishers is not currently possible (Fischer & Hunter 2021a).

Most impacts are localised. A continued increasing trend of the pressure is reflected in a trend of ‘deteriorating’; however, realised impacts may be mitigated by strong management (Peel & Smith 2021). The Indigenous assessment regionally was high impact, with a stable trend.

Mineral mining activities remain stable; oil and gas exploration activities have decreased; oil production activities have decreased; and gas production activities have increased (Evans et al. 2021b). The Indigenous assessment locally was low impact, with a stable trend.

Few data are available on environmental pressures of marine renewable energy generation. Pressures are undetectable at the current scale, with no indication of increase (Hemer 2021b). The Indigenous assessment locally was very low impact, with an unclear trend.

Noise generated by shipping is present around much of Australia. Oil and gas activities are associated with the main exploration and extraction regions (north-west and south-east), and port and coastal activities are largely associated with urban areas. Monitoring and quantification of inputs are lacking (Evans et al. 2021e). The Indigenous assessment locally was very low impact, with a stable trend.

Management effectiveness is increasing from a partially effective base that has been achieved over the past decade (Hobday & Spillman 2021).

Improved coordination of research and development, and national best-practice guidelines have led to more stocks being benchmarked against sustainability-based reference points, with an increasing trend towards incorporating triple-bottom-line reporting. The Status of Australian fish stocks reports compile data and report on the status of key wild-caught fish stocks (Little & Hill 2021).

Indigenous people are interested in entering commercial fisheries, but there is a lack of readiness, capacity and confidence to engage. Indigenous co-management approaches are lacking in Australia, with traditional knowledge constrained by top-down institutional governance. Indigenous participation across regulatory bodies is lacking across most jurisdictions (Fischer & Hunter 2021b).

Regional cooperation and coordination across jurisdictions are growing, but there is still limited alignment of key management policies, data collection, strategies and planning across jurisdictions. Recent years have seen improved accounting for recreational catch in stock assessments (Lynch et al. 2021a).

Mineral, oil and gas exploration and production are subject to regulatory regimes across Commonwealth and state/territory waters governed under legislative frameworks. Regulation requires that environmental impacts and risks have been considered, and reduced to acceptable and as low as reasonably practicable levels via environmental plans approved by the regulator. High compliance by the oil and gas industry is reported by the National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority. No mining currently occurs in Commonwealth waters. Mining, oil and gas activity is currently low in state and territory waters (Evans et al. 2021c).

Considerable progress has been made in development and implementation of waste management programs (particularly for land-originated waste) over the past 5 years, but efforts to date have not been sufficient to reverse the increasing pressure resulting from plastics and marine debris in the Australian coastal and marine environments (Hardesty 2021).

The most significant concerns are for the health of coral reefs and the impact of spills on the environment (Gagnon et al. 2021).

There is a good understanding of most management issues and clear responsibility for governance. Management responses continue to improve, and most threats are well identified, although not all are well understood (Smith & Peel 2021).

No national regulatory framework for offshore clean energy infrastructure currently exists. A consistent offshore renewable energy regulatory framework that spans jurisdictions is required to effectively manage potential growth of this sector in Australia (Hemer 2021a).

Regulatory oversight for a limited range of activities aims to ensure effective management of underwater noise. Management outcomes for other activities are less clear. Acute impacts are largely managed through approval processes under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, regulatory frameworks and environmental planning, reducing risks to sensitive receptors. Assessment and inspection of only a limited number of noise-producing activities are used to inform required areas of improvement in these sectors (Evans et al. 2021d).

Traditional Owners in the yarning circle had mixed responses about management of the marine environment and resources supporting inclusiveness, equity and human wellbeing, with ‘disagree’ / ‘strongly disagree’ receiving similar numbers of responses to ‘agree’ and ‘neutral’. The discussion raised the important point that, even if Traditional Owners have strong influence on decision-making, there is no strong influence to appropriately manage their own resources. This has flow-on consequences for equity in resources and livelihoods, and wellbeing benefits from the resources.