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Air quality
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Environment
Air pollution types and sources
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Persistent organic pollutants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
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Outdoor conditions
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Antarctica
Introduction
Key findings
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Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Physical environment
Atmosphere
Cryosphere
Southern Ocean
Living environment
Terrestrial species                                         Â
Marine vertebrate species
Marine invertebrates
Human environment
Antarctic stations
Australian Antarctic stations
Shipping and air operations
Heritage values
Natural heritage sites
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Climate change
Air temperature
Winds
Precipitation
Ultraviolet radiation
Sea ice
Ocean temperature
Ocean acidification
Population
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Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
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Bioprospecting
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National and international frameworks
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Biodiversity
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Environment
Flora and fauna
Indigenous culturally significant species
Threatened species
Plants
Animals
Fungi and other microorganisms
Ecosystems and habitats
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Aquatic ecosystems and habitats
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Threatened species and ecological communities
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Management investment
Natural resource management and biodiversity programs
Indigenous Protected Areas and ranger programs
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Climate
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Environment
Temperature
Land temperatures
Ocean temperatures
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Regional rainfall trends
Snow
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Sea level
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Coasts
Introduction
Key findings
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Outlook
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Environment
Beaches and shorelines
Ocean beaches and sand dunes
Beaches in estuaries and bays
Rocky shoreline
Mudflats and sandbars
Coastal waterways
Estuaries and bays
Water quality
Coastal lakes and lagoons
Coastal ecosystems and habitats
Mangroves
Saltmarshes
Seagrasses
Dune vegetation
Islands
Coastal species
Threatened species
Shorebirds
Crocodiles
Dugongs
Invertebrates in estuaries and bays
Pressures
Climate change
Extreme weather events
Sea level rise
Erosion and inundation
Population
Coastal development and land use
Tourism and recreation
Customary fishing
Marine plastics and debris
Microplastics
Light pollution
Industry
Nutrient pollution
Contaminants in urban estuaries
Mining and energy production
Artificial structures
Aquaculture
Desalination
Dredging
Flow regimes
Biological pressures
Aquatic invasive species
Terrestrial invasive species
Infectious diseases and mass die-offs
Harmful algal blooms
Jellyfish blooms
Management
Coastal governance and policy
Legislative protection
Indigenous rights and policy
Management approaches
Integrated management
Indigenous management
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Threatened species management
Restoration and recovery
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Extreme events
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Cyclones and storms
Tropical cyclones
East coast lows
Hail and convective storms
Floods
Rainfall events and flash floods
Coastal erosion and inundation
Heatwaves
Terrestrial heatwaves
Marine heatwaves
Bushfires and wildfires
Increasing fire risk
Summer bushfires in 2019–20
Other recent bushfires
Indigenous fire management
Pressures
Climate change
Temperature-related extremes
Rainfall and drought
Bushfires
Sea level rise and coastal flooding
Tropical cyclones and storms
Population
Urban expansion
Legacy construction and planning
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National and international frameworks
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Tropical cyclones
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Built environment
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Heritage
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Indigenous heritage
Definition and types of Indigenous heritage
Recognition and protection of Indigenous heritage
Natural heritage
Types and condition of natural heritage
Recognition and protection of natural heritage
Pressures on, and management of, natural heritage
Geoheritage
Types and condition of geoheritage
Recognition and protection of geoheritage
Pressures on, and management of, geoheritage
Historic heritage
Types and condition of historic heritage
Recognition and protection of historic heritage
Pressures on, and management of, historic heritage
Heritage recognised under the EPBC Act
World Heritage
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Pressures
Climate change
Extreme events
Sea level rise and associated marine changes
Long-term gradual-onset effects
Population
Urban development
Services
Invasive species and disease
Governance
Industry
Extractive industries
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Production and manufacturing
Tourism and recreation
Other pressures on Indigenous heritage
Effects of colonisation
Ongoing pressures on Indigenous heritage
Disempowerment
Disconnection from Country
Management
National and international frameworks
National legislative framework
National heritage management framework
International heritage obligations and responsibilities
Leadership and partnerships
Management approaches
Respecting and protecting heritage values
Providing for community needs and expectations
Indigenous management approaches
Managing specific pressures
Climate change
Extractive industries
Tourism and recreation
Urban development
Resources
Funding
Information and data
Human resources
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Indigenous
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impact
Outlook
Impact
Environment
Country and connections
What does Country mean to Indigenous people?
Different aspects and areas of Country and connection
People
Wellbeing and connection with kin and Country
Knowledge, languages and practices
Pressures
Governance
Impacts of colonisation, frontier violence, dispossession and family disruption
Disempowerment and lack of recognition
Information
Indigenous data sovereignty
Data for governance
Tension between Indigenous knowledge and digital data systems
Climate change
Changes to seasons, flora and fauna
Extreme events
People and industry
Development and land-use change
Industrial and commercial pressures
Management
National and international frameworks that support caring for Country
Indigenous land ownership and management
Protected areas
Legal empowerment
International laws and agreements
Caring for Country
What should caring for Country look like?
Benefits of caring for Country
Enablers of caring for Country
Indigenous governance of Country
Indigenous water governance and rights
Indigenous-led monitoring and evaluation
Indigenous knowledge governance
People and skills
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Inland water
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Water sources
Rainfall
Surface water
Groundwater
Other water sources
Natural water systems
Rivers and streams
Fish deaths
Natural lakes
Wetlands
Indigenous water
Water and Indigenous people
Pressures on Indigenous water
Indigenous water consultation and access
Water quality
Water quality guidelines
Salinity
Eutrophication and suspended sediments
Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)
Acid sulfate releases
Pressures
Climate change
Changes in hydrology
Bushfires
Heavy rainfall and flooding
Population
Water stress
Industry
Agriculture
Mining, and oil and gas production
Management
National frameworks
National Water Initiative
Water Act 2007
Murray–Darling Basin Plan
National Groundwater Strategic Framework
Management approaches
Water markets
Water resource planning in Australia
Environmental and cultural flows
Resources
Funding
Data and monitoring
Citizen science
New technologies
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Land
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Land and its natural capital values
Native vegetation
Vegetation extent
Vegetation condition
Soil
Soil classification
Soil health
Carbon
Carbon cycle and budgets
Carbon above the ground in vegetation biomass
Carbon below the ground in soils
Pressures
Land use
Changes at the national level
Changes at the state and territory level
Climate change
Greenhouse gas emissions from land use
Changing temperatures and hydrology
Changing patterns of ecosystems, agriculture and forestry
Population
Urban expansion
Infrastructure
Industry
Agriculture
Forestry
Extractive industries
Land clearing
Landfill and land contamination
Introduced and invasive species
Overall status and trends
Overall impacts
Compounding pressures
Management
Management approaches
Land tenure
Protected areas
Indigenous land management
Retaining and restoring natural capital assets
Management of specific pressures
Invasive species management
Agriculture management
Forestry management
Extractive industries management
Resources
Funding
Data and monitoring
Environmental–economic accounting
Human resources
New technologies
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
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Approach
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Case studies
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Marine
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Marine habitats and communities
Water column
Coral reefs
Rocky reefs and kelp beds
Canyons and seamounts
Other seabed habitats
Marine species
Marine mammals
Sharks, rays, and chimaeras
Tuna and billfish
Reef fishes
Other fishes
Sea turtles and sea snakes
Seabirds
Invertebrates
Marine ecosystem processes
Water clarity (turbidity, transparency and colour)
Microbial processes
Primary production (phytoplankton)
Secondary production (zooplankton)
Food webs and connectivity
Species redistribution
Pressures
Climate and climate change
Climate and system variability
Changes to water temperature and salinity
Ocean acidification
Changes to ocean circulation
Changes to ocean nutrients and dissolved oxygen
Extreme weather events
Introduced species, diseases, pests and algal blooms
Population
Recreational fishing
Marine plastics and debris
Other marine pollution
Tourism
Industry
Commercial fishing
Indigenous commercial fishing
Marine vessel activity
Marine petrochemical and mineral industries
Offshore renewable energy generation
Anthropogenic marine noise
Cumulative effects
Management
National and international policy and frameworks
National policy
Marine biodiversity protection
Indigenous inclusivity
International policy
Management approaches
Integrated management
Management and data agreements with Traditional Custodians
Marine ecosystem restoration and engineering
Management of specific pressures
Climate and climate change
Commercial fishing
Indigenous commercial fishing
Recreational fishing
Marine petrochemical and mineral industries
Plastics and marine debris
Other marine pollution
Marine vessel activity
Offshore renewable energy generation
Anthropogenic marine noise
Resources
National Marine Science Plan
Integrated Marine Observing System
Marine National Facility
Reef Integrated Monitoring and Reporting Program
Indigenous knowledge and research
About this chapter
Authors and acknowledgements
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Approach
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Case studies
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Urban
Introduction
Key findings
Outlook and impacts
Outlook
Impacts
Environment
Population and buildings
Population
Population concentration
Built form and development
Livability
Access to jobs, food, services and digital connectivity
Travel
Safety and security
The natural environment
Air quality
Resource availability and security
Water
Energy
Pressures
Climate change
Urban heat
Bushfires
Rainfall deficiency and drought
Extreme rainfall and flooding
Sea level rise
Population
Population growth forecast
Urban densification and expansion
Travel demand
Resource consumption
Waste and pollution
COVID-19 pandemic
Industry
Management
Management approaches
Urban planning and collaboration
Urban resilience
Management of specific pressures
Travel management
Waste management
Water management
Heat management
Resources
Data and monitoring
Community engagement
New technologies and the future city
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Cite this page
Trewin B, Morgan-Bulled D, Cooper S (2021). Climate: Greenhouse gases. In:
Australia State of the environment 2021
, Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, Canberra,
https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/climate/pressures/greenhouse-gases
, DOI: 10.26194/rdze-5d59
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